Physical Attractiveness
Physical attractiveness
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Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Adonis
restored and completed by François
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Physical attractiveness refers to a person's physical traits which are
perceived to be aesthetically pleasing
or beautiful. The
term often implies sexual
attractiveness or desirability, but can also be distinct from the
two; for example, humans may regard the young as attractive for various
reasons, but without sexual attraction. There are many factors which influence
one person's attraction to another, with physical aspects being one of them.
Generally,
physical attraction can be studied from a number of perspectives, including
universal perceptions common to all human cultures,
cultural and social aspects,
and individual subjective preferences. Additionally, the perception of
attractiveness can have a significant effect on how people are judged in terms
of employment or social opportunities, friendship, sexual behavior, and marriage.[1] In many
cases, humans attribute positive characteristics, such as intelligence and
honesty, to physically attractive people without consciously realizing it.[2]
Women, on
average, tend to be more attracted to men who have a relatively narrow waist, a
V-shaped torso, and broad shoulders, are taller than they are, and display a
high-degree of facial symmetry, and relatively masculine facial dimorphism.[3][4]
According
to one source, the most important factor that attracts gay men to other males
is the man's physical attractiveness.[5]
Studies
have shown that ovulating heterosexual women (and homosexual men) prefer faces
with masculine traits associated with increased exposure to testosterone during
key developmental stages, such as prominent and broad cheekbones,[6]
a relatively longer lower face, developed brows, and chiseled jawlines. The
masculinity of male faces (and the femininity of female faces) is described as
a sexual dimorphism. Female
respondents in the follicular phase of their menstrual cycle (n = 55) were
significantly more likely to choose a masculine face than those in menses and
luteal phases (n = 84),[7] (or in
those taking hormonal
contraception).[3][4][8] It is
suggested that the masculinity of facial features is a reliable indication of
good health, or, alternatively, that masculine-looking males are more likely to
achieve high status.[9] However,
the correlation between attractive facial features and health has been
questioned.[10] Also,
females tend to prefer masculine facial traits more for short-term partners
than for long-term partners. Sociocultural factors, such as self-perceived
attractiveness, status in a relationship and degree of gender-conformity, have
been reported to play a role in female preferences for male faces.[11] Studies
have found that women who perceive themselves as physically attractive are more
likely to choose men with masculine facial dimorphism, than are women who
perceive themselves as physically unattractive.[12] In men,
facial masculinity significantly correlates with facial symmetry—it has been
suggested that both are signals of developmental stability and genetic health.[13]
Symmetrical faces and bodies may be signs of good inheritance to women of child-bearing age seeking to create healthy offspring. Studies suggest women are more attracted to men with symmetrical faces.[14] Studies have also suggested that women at peak fertility were more likely to fantasize about men with greater facial symmetry,[15] and other studies have found that male symmetry was the only factor that could significantly predict the likelihood of a woman experiencing orgasm during sex. Women with partners possessing greater symmetry reported significantly more copulatory female orgasms than were reported by women with partners possessing low symmetry, even with many potential confounding variables controlled.[16] This finding has been found to hold across different cultures. It has been argued that masculine facial dimorphism (in men) and symmetry in faces are signals advertising genetic quality in potential mates.[17] Low facial and body fluctuating asymmetry may indicate good health and intelligence, which are desirable features.[14] Studies have found that women who perceive themselves as being more physically attractive are more likely to favor men with a higher degree of facial symmetry, than are women who perceive themselves as being less physically attractive.[12] It has been found that symmetrical men (and women) have a tendency to begin to have sexual intercourse at an earlier age, to have more sexual partners, and to have more one-night stands. They are also more likely to be prone to infidelity.[18]
A number
of double-blind studies have found that women prefer the scent of men who are
rated as facially attractive.[19] For
example, a study by Anja Rikowski and Karl Grammer had individuals rate the
scent of t-shirts slept in by test subjects. The photographs of those subjects were
independently rated, and Rikowski and Grammar found that both males and females
were more attracted to the natural scent of individuals who had been rated by
consensus as facially attractive.[20]
Additionally, it has also been shown that women have a preference for the scent
of men with more symmetrical faces, and that women's preference for the scent
of more symmetrical men is strongest during the most fertile period of their
menstrual cycle. Within the set of normally cycling women, individual women's
preference for the scent of men with high facial symmetry correlated with their
probability of conception.[21]
See also:
Heterozygote advantage
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Male
facial attractiveness is seen to correlate with MHC heterozygosity.[clarification needed] Women
judge the faces of men who are heterozygous at all three MHC loci to be more
attractive than the faces of men who are homozygous at one or more of these
loci. MHC heterozygosity across all three loci is independently seen as a
genetic advantage. It is suggested that this is further evidence that male
facial attractiveness is a mechanism by which genetic advantages (MHC
heterozygosity is an example of just one such genetic advantage) are indicated.
Additionally, a second experiment with genotyped women raters, found these
preferences were independent of the degree of MHC similarity between the men and the female rater. Women raters
are able to achieve a common consensus about the attractiveness of male faces.
The results suggest that facial attractiveness in men is a measure of genetic
quality.[22][23]
For the
Romans especially, "beardlessness" and "smooth young
bodies" were considered beautiful to both men and women.[24] For
Greek and Roman men, the most desirable traits of boys were their
"youth" and "hairlessness". Pubescent boys were considered
a socially appropriate object of male desire, while post-pubescent boys were
considered to be "ἔξωροι" or "past the prime".[24]
The mesomorphic physique
of a slim waist, broad shoulders and muscular chest are often found to be
attractive.[25] When
asked to rate other men, both heterosexual and homosexual men found low
waist-to-chest ratios to be more attractive on other men with the gay men
showing a preference for lower WCR (more V-shaped) than the straight men.[26]
Studies
based in China, England, the United States, Italy, New Zealand, Sweden, Spain,
and France have shown that most women consider men with a longer penis with
greater circumference as more attractive.[27]
Females'
sexual attraction towards males may be determined by the height of the
man.[28] Height
in men is associated with status or wealth in many cultures (in particular
those where malnutrition is common),[29]
which is beneficial to women romantically involved with them. One study
conducted of women's personal ads support the existence of this preference; the
study found that in ads requesting height in a mate, 80% requested a height of
6 feet or taller.[29] However,
this percentage was only of ads specifying height, and therefore possibly
self-selected and/or biased by a third factor such as female height. Recent
studies have shown that heterosexual women often prefer men taller than they
are, rather than a man with above average height. While women usually desire
men to be at least the same height as themselves or taller, several other
factors also determine male attractiveness, and the male-taller norm is not
universal.[30] In
certain non-Western cultures, the relative heights of partners have been shown
to be irrelevant in their choice of mate, which suggests that Western height
preferences may be sociocultural, rather than genetic, in nature.[30]
Professor Adam Eyre-Walker, from the University
of Sussex, stated that there is, as yet, no evidence that these preferences are
evolutionary preferences, as opposed to merely cultural preferences.[31]
Additionally,
women seem more receptive to an erect posture than men, though both prefer it
as an element of beauty.[29]
According to one study (Yee N., 2002), gay men who identify as "Only Tops" tend to prefer shorter men, while gay men
who identify as "Only Bottoms" tend to prefer taller men.[32]
Studies
based in the United States, New Zealand, and China have shown that women rate
men with no body hair as most attractive, and that attractiveness ratings
decline as hirsutism
increases.[33][34] Another
study found a moderate amount of trunk hair was most attractive, to the sample
of British and Sri Lankan women.[35]
A degree
of hirsuteness (hairiness) and a waist-to-shoulder ratio of 0.6 is often
preferred, when combined with a mesomorphic physique.[35]
In a
study using Finnish women, women with hairy fathers were more likely to prefer
hairy men, showing that preference for hairy men is either the result of
genetics or imprinting.[36] Among
gay men, another study (Yee N., 2002) reported gay males who identify as
"Only Tops" to prefer less hairy men, while gay males
who identify as "Only Bottoms" prefer hairier men.[32]
It has
been shown that women prefer men with a more masculine facial dimorphism during
the fertile period of the menstrual cycle and men with a more feminine facial
dimorphism during other parts of the cycle.[37] This
distinction supports the sexy son
hypothesis, which posits that it is evolutionarily
advantageous for women to select potential fathers who are more genetically
attractive,[38]
rather than the best caregivers.[39]
According to one study, men with facial scars are more attractive to Western
women seeking short-term relationships; the authors speculated that the facial
scars could be seen by women as a symbol of masculinity, a possible indicator
of genetically higher testosterone levels.[40]
According
to strategic pluralism theory, men may have correspondingly evolved to pursue
reproductive strategies that are contingent on their own physical
attractiveness. More physically attractive men accrue reproductive benefits
from spending more time seeking multiple mating partners and relatively less
time investing in offspring. In contrast, the reproductive effort of physically
less attractive men, who therefore will not have the same mating opportunities,
is better allocated either to investing heavily in accruing resources, or
investing in their mates and offspring and spending relatively less time
seeking additional mates.[41]
Testosterone
has been shown to darken skin color in laboratory experiments.[42] In his
foreword to Peter Frost's 2005 Fair Women, Dark Men, University of Washington sociologist Pierre L. van den
Berghe writes: "Although virtually all cultures express a marked
preference for fair female skin, even those with little or no exposure to
European imperialism, and even those whose members are heavily pigmented, many
are indifferent to male pigmentation or even prefer men to be darker."[43]
According
one study (Yee N., 2002), gay men who identify as "Only Tops" tend to
prefer lighter-skinned men while gay men who identify as "Only
Bottoms" tend to prefer darker-skinned men.[32]
As a
consequence of evolutionary
preferences, men tend to be attracted to young[44]
(indicative of fertility) and beautiful women.[45] Rather
than decreasing it, modernity has only increased the emphasis men place on
women's looks.[46]
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Cross-cultural
studies have shown rough agreement on the features that constitute a beautiful
face in a woman.[48][49][50] High
wide cheekbones and narrow cheeks are "signs that a woman has reached
puberty" and "high eyebrows, dilated pupils and wide smile"
signal excitement and sociability.[48] Men were
found to prefer full lips,[51]
clear smooth skin, and clear eyes.[44] Facial
symmetry has been shown to be attractive in women,[52][53] and
women with thick, dark limbal
rings in their eyes have been found to be more attractive. The explanation
given is that because the ring tends to fade with age and medical problems, a
prominent limbal ring gives an honest indicator of youth.[54]
In a
cross-cultural study, more neotenized female
faces were found to be most attractive to men while less neotenized female
faces were found to be less attractive to men, regardless of the females'
actual age.[55] Desired
traits were a small jaw[56]
and chin, a small nose and large eyes.[48] These
"infantlike features draw out in them the same caretaking response a baby
would—they make a woman seem cute and adorable."[48] In a
study of Italian women who have won beauty competitions, it was found that the
Italian women who won the beauty competitions had faces characterized by more
"babyness" traits compared to the "normal" women used as a
reference.[57]
In
computer face averaging tests, women with averaged faces
have been shown to be considered more attractive.[58] This is
possibly due to average features being more familiar and, therefore, more
comfortable.[59]
Commenting
on the prevalence of whiteness in supposed beauty ideals in his book White
Lies: Race and the Myth of Whiteness, Maurice Berger notes
that the schematic rendering in the idealized face of a notable study conducted
with American subjects had "straight hair," "light skin,"
"almond-shaped eyes," "thin, arched eyebrows," "a
long, thin nose, closely set and tiny nostrils" and "a large mouth
and thin lips",[60] though
the author of the study noted the consistency between his results and those
conducted on other races.
One
psychologist speculated there were two opposing principles of female beauty:
prettiness and rarity. So on average, symmetrical features are one ideal, while
unusual, stand-out features are another.[61] A study
performed by the University of Toronto found that the most attractive facial
dimensions were those found in the average female face. However, that
particular University of Toronto study looked only at white women.[62]
Cross-cultural
data shows that the reproductive success of women is tied to their youth and
physical attractiveness[63]
such as the pre-industrial Sami where
the most reproductively successful women were 15 years younger than their man.[64] One
study covering 37 cultures showed that, on average, a woman was 2.5 years
younger than her male partner, with the age difference in Nigeria and Zambia
being at the far extreme of 6.5 to 7.5 years. As men age, they tend to seek a
mate who is even younger.[44] In a
study performed in the United States, men were found to consider the ideal
wife's age to be 16.87 years old.[65] In a
study of male penile tumescence, men were found most aroused by pictures of
young adult females.[66]
The
common explanation for this preference is that men have evolved to be attracted
to women with high child-bearing potential and that female fecundity
typically declines after the late twenties[67] with
female fecundity having declined "markedly" after age 30.[68] In fact,
natural population data shows that women's fecundity actually ends at 39–41
years old even though menopause occurs in the mid-50s.[69]
A study
has shown that men like to look at women's breasts,[70] and
another study showed that men prefer symmetrical breasts[71] but some
studies show men preferring large, firm breasts,[72][73] while a
contradictory study of British undergraduates found men preferring small
breasts on women.[74]
Cross-culturally, another study found "high variability" regarding
the ideal breast size.[74]
Body Mass Index (BMI) is
an important determinant to the perception of beauty.[75] Even
though the Western ideal is for a thin woman, some cultures prefer plumper
women,[76][77] so
attraction for a particular BMI appears to be merely a cultural artifact.[77] The
attraction for a proportionate body also influences an appeal for erect
posture.[74]
Main
article: Waist–hip
ratio
Ethnic
groups vary with regard to their ideal waist-to-hip ratio for women,[78] ranging
from 0.6 in China,[79] to 0.8
or 0.9 in parts of South America and Africa,[80][81][82] and
divergent preferences based on ethnicity, rather than nationality, have also
been noted.[83][84] A
cross-cultural analysis that found isolated peoples preferring high WHR (0.9)
concluded that preference for low WHR (0.7) "only reflected the
pervasiveness of Western media";[85] however
David Buss believes preference for low WHR is a signal for fertility and
biologically based.[86]
Most men
tend to be taller than their female partner[87] and it
has been found that, in Western societies, most men prefer shorter women,[88] men tend
to view taller women as less attractive[88] and men
view couples where the woman is taller to be less ideal.[88] Women
who are 0.7 to 1.7 standard
deviations below the mean female height have been reported to
be the most reproductively successful,[89]
since fewer tall women get married compared to shorter women.[88]
However,
in some non-Western cultures, height is irrelevant in choosing a mate, which
suggests that the preference among Western men for women shorter than themselves
may be sociocultural in nature.[30]
A study
using Polish participants by Sorokowski found 5% longer legs than an individual
used as a reference was considered most attractive.[90] The
study concluded this preference might stem from the influence of leggy runway
models.[91] The
Sorokowski study was criticized for using a picture of the same person with
digitally altered leg lengths which Marco Bertamini felt were unrealistic.[92]
Another
study using British and American participants, found "mid-ranging"
leg-to-body ratios to be most ideal.[93]
A study
by Swami et al. of American men and women showed a preference for men with legs
as long as the rest of their body and women with 40% longer legs than the rest
of their body.[94] The
researcher concluded that this preference might be influenced by American
culture where long leg women are portrayed as more attractive.[94] The
Swami et al. study was criticized for using a picture of the same person with
digitally altered leg lengths which Marco Bertamini felt were unrealistic.[92]
Bertamini also criticized the Swami study for only changing the leg length
while keeping the arm length constant.[92]
Bertamini's own study which used stick figures mirrored Swami's study, however,
by finding a preference for leggier women.[92]
According
to some studies, most men prefer women with small feet,[95][96] such as
in ancient China where foot binding was
practiced.[97]
Cambridge
University zoologist Charles Goodhart believes men have long preferred the
"hairless trait" in women,[98]
ever since the existence of the "hairless trait" occurred in our
hairy forebears 70 to 120 thousand years ago.[98]
Men have
been found to prefer long-haired women.[44][99][100] One
study reported non-Asian men to prefer blondes and Asian men to prefer
black-haired women.[100]
Main
article: Human
skin color#Cultural aspects of skin color
A
preference for lighter-skinned women has remained prevalent over time, even in
cultures without European contact.[101][102]
Anthropologist Peter Frost stated that since higher-ranking men were allowed
to marry the perceived more attractive women, who tended to have fair skin, the
upper classes of a society generally tended to develop a lighter complexion
than the lower classes by sexual selection (see
also Fisherian runaway).[101][102]
Today, skin
bleaching is not uncommon in parts of the world such as Africa,[103] and a
preference for lighter-skinned women generally holds true for African
Americans,[104] Latin
Americans,[105] and
Asians.[106] One
exception to this has been in contemporary Western culture, where tanned skin
used to be associated with the sun-exposed manual labor of the lower-class, but
has generally been considered
more attractive and healthier since the mid-20th century.[107][108][109][110][111]
Evidence
shows that men tend to place a higher value on physical appearance in a partner
than women do.[112] Evolutionary
psychology explains this as consequence of ancestral humans
who selected partners based on secondary sexual characteristics, as well
as general indicators of fitness which allowed for greater reproductive success
as a result of higher fertility in those partners,[113] although
a male's ability to provide resources for offspring was likely signaled less by
physical features.[112] It is
argued that the most prominent indicator of fertility in women is youth,[67][114] while
the traits in a man which enhance reproductive success are proxies for his
ability to accrue resources and protect.[114] For both
men and women, there appear to be universal criteria of attractiveness both
within and across cultures and ethnic groups.[115]
Studies
have shown that women pay greater attention to physical traits than they do
directly to earning capability or potential to commit,[116]
including muscularity, fitness and masculinity of features; the latter
preference was observed to vary during a woman's period, with women preferring
more masculine features during the late-follicular (fertile) phase of the
menstrual cycle.[117][118]
Additionally, women process physical attractiveness differently, paying
attention to both individual features and the aesthetic effect of the whole
face.[119] A 2003
study in the area concluded that heterosexual women are about equally aroused
when viewing men or women. Heterosexual men were only aroused by women. This
study verified arousal in the test subjects by connecting them to brain imaging
devices.[120][121][122][123] Notably,
the same study reported arousal for women upon viewing animals mating.
People
are usually attracted to people who look like them[124] and they
usually evaluate faces that exhibit features of their own ethnic or racial
group as being more attractive.[100] Although
both men and women use children's "facial resemblance" to themselves
in "attractiveness judgments," a greater percentage of women in one
study (37% n=30) found hypothetical children whose faces were
"self-morphs" of themselves as most attractive when compared to men
(30% n=23).[125]
Perceptions
of physical attractiveness contribute to generalized assumptions based on those
attractions. Across cultures, what is beautiful is assumed to be good; attractive
people are assumed to be more extroverted, popular, and happy. This could lead
to a self-fulfilling prophecy, as from a young age, attractive
people receive more attention that helps them develop these characteristics.[126][127] However,
attractiveness varies by society; in ancient China, a small foot was considered
attractive, so foot binding was
practiced by confining young girls' feet in tightly bound shoes to prevent the
feet from growing to normal size.[128]
People
make judgments of physical attractiveness based on what they see, but also on
what they know about the person. Specifically, perceptions of beauty are
malleable such that information about the person's personality traits can
influence one's assessment of another person's physical beauty. A 2007 study
had participants first rate pictures for attractiveness. After doing
distracting math problems, participants saw the pictures again, but with
information about the person's personality. When participants learned that a
person had positive personality characteristics (e.g., smart, funny, kind), that
person was seen as more physically attractive.[129]
Conversely, a person with negative personality characteristics (e.g.,
materialistic, rude, untrustworthy) was seen as less physically attractive.
This was true for both females and males.
Physical
attractiveness can have various effects. A survey conducted by London Guildhall University of 11,000 people showed that
those who subjectively describe themselves as physically attractive earn more
income than others who would describe themselves as less attractive.[130] People
who described themselves as less attractive earned, on average, 13% less than
those who described themselves as more attractive, while the penalty for being
overweight was around 5%. It is important to note that other factors such as
self-confidence may explain or influence these findings as they are based on
self-reported attractiveness as opposed to any sort of objective criteria;
however, as one's self-confidence and self-esteem are
largely learned from how one is regarded by his/her peers while maturing, even
these considerations would suggest a significant role for physical appearance.
One writer speculated that "the distress created in women by the spread of
unattainable ideals of female beauty" might possibly be linked to
increasing incidence of depression.[131]
Many have
asserted that certain advantages tend to come to those who are perceived as
being more attractive, including the ability to get better jobs and promotions;
receiving better treatment from authorities and the legal system; having
more choices in romantic partners and, therefore, more power in relationships;
and marrying into families with more money.[126][127][132] Men and
women use physical attractiveness as a measure of how "good" another
person is.[133]
Discrimination against or prejudice towards others based on their appearance is
sometimes referred to as lookism.
Some
researchers conclude that little difference exists between men and women in
terms of sexual behavior.[134][135] Symmetrical men and women have a tendency to
begin to have sexual
intercourse at an earlier age, to have more sexual partners,
to engage in a wider variety of sexual activities, and to
have more one-night stands. They
are also prone to infidelity and are
more likely to have open
relationships.[136]
Additionally, they have the most reproductive
success. Therefore, their physical characteristics are most likely to be
inherited by future generations.[137][138][139][140]
- Adornment
- Body proportions
- Body shape
- Erotic capital
- Female body shape
- Human physical appearance
- Sexual attraction
- Sexual fetishes
- Sexual objectification
Notes
2. ^ Dion, K.;
Berscheid, E.;
Walster, E. (1972). "What is beautiful is good". Journal
of Personality and Social Psychology 24
(3): 285–290. doi:10.1037/h0033731.
3. ^ a b
Glassenberg, A.N.; Feinberg, D.F.; Jones, B.C.; Little, A.C.; Debruine, L.M.
(2009) Sex-Dimorphic Face Shape
Preference in Heterosexual and Homosexual Men and Women. Arch
Sex Behavior.
4. ^ a b Perrett,
D.I.; Lee, K.J.; Penton-Voak, I.S.; Rowland, D.R.; Yoshikawa, S.; Burt, D.M.;
Henzi, S.P.; Castles, D.L. et al. (1998). "Effects
of sexual dimorphism on facial attractiveness". Nature
394 (6696): 884–887. doi:10.1038/29772. PMID 9732869. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v394/n6696/full/394884a0.html.
5. ^ Voon,
C.P. The Crossroads of Race and Sexuality Date Selection Among Men in Internet
“Personal” Ads. CUNY Graduate School.
6. ^ Facial
attractiveness, symmetry and cues of good genes, J.E. Scheib, S.W.
Gangestad, and R. Thornhill, Proc Biol Sci. 1999 September 22; 266(1431)
7. ^ I.S.
Penton-Voak, PhD.a, D.I. Perrett, PhD. (January 2000). "Female preference
for male faces changes cyclically: Further evidence". Evolution and
Human Behavior 21 (1): 39–48. doi:10.1016/S1090-5138(99)00033-1.
8. ^ Rhodes G
(2006). "The evolutionary psychology of facial beauty". Annu Rev
Psychol 57: 199–226. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.57.102904.190208. PMID 16318594.
9. ^ Fink B,
Neave N, Seydel H (2007). "Male facial appearance signals physical
strength to women". Am J Hum Biol. 19 (1): 82–7. doi:10.1002/ajhb.20583. PMID 17160983.
10. ^ Rhodes
G., Chan J., Zebrowitz L.A., Simmons L.W. (2003). "Does sexual dimorphism
in human faces signal health?". Proc Biol Sci. 270 (Suppl
1): S93–5. doi:10.1098/rsbl.2003.0023. PMC 1698019. PMID 12952647.
11. ^ Cellerino
A (2003). "Psychobiology of facial attractiveness". J Endocrinol
Invest 26 (3 Suppl): 45–8. PMID 12834020.
12. ^ a b Little
A.C., Burt D.M., Penton-Voak I.S., Perrett D.I. (2001). "Self-perceived
attractiveness influences human female preferences for sexual dimorphism and
symmetry in male faces". Proc Biol Sci. 268 (1462): 39–44. doi:10.1098/rspb.2000.1327. PMC 1087598. PMID 12123296.
13. ^ Gangestada
Steven W., Thornhill Randy (2003). "Facial masculinity and fluctuating
asymmetry". Evolution and Human Behavior 24: 231–241. doi:10.1016/S1090-5138(03)00017-5.
14. ^ a b Stephen
Khan and Roger Dobson (2 October 2005). "A
symmetrical face isn't just prettier – it's healthier too". The
Independent: Science (London). http://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/a-symmetrical-face-isnt-just-prettier--its-healthier-too-509285.html.
Retrieved 2010-01-19. "For the perfectly proportioned face is also an
indication that the body it sits atop is well prepared to fight off infection.
The common cold, asthma and flu are all more likely to be combated efficiently
by those whose left side matches their right."
15. ^ Tim
Radford (17 August 2005). "How
women dream of symmetrical men". The
Guardian (London). http://www.guardian.co.uk/science/2005/aug/17/genderissues.research.
Retrieved 2010-01-19. "The research once again confirms a hypothesis that
beauty is not merely in the eye of the beholder: it is an indicator of genetic
fitness. From a choice of computer-generated faces, volunteers routinely choose
the most symmetrical as the most attractive. Physical symmetry is interpreted
as a sign of good inheritance. And therefore, the theory goes, women in a
position to conceive would be more attracted to someone more likely to engender
the healthiest offspring."
16. ^ Human
female orgasm and mate fluctuating asymmetry, Animal Behaviour, Volume
50, Issue 6, 1995, Pages 1601–1615, Randy Thornhill*, , , Steven W. Gangestad†
and Randall Comer
17. ^ Symmetry
Is Related to Sexual Dimorphism in Faces: Data Across Culture and Species,
Little, A.C.; Jones, B.C.; Waitt, C.; Tiddeman, B.P.; Feinberg, D.R.; et al.
(2008) Symmetry Is Related to Sexual Dimorphism in Faces: Data Across Culture
and Species. PLoS ONE 3(5): e2106. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0002106
19. ^
Haselton, Martie G., and Steven W. Gangestad. Conditional expression of women's
desires and men's mate guarding across the ovulatory cycle. Hormones and
Behavior. 2006; 49:509–518.
20. ^
Rikowski, Anja, and Karl Grammer. Human body odour, symmetry and
attractiveness. Proceedings of the Royal Society B-Biological Sciences.
1999; 266:869–874
21. ^
Menstrual cycle variation in women's preferences for the scent of symmetrical
men, Proc Biol Sci. 1998 May 22; 265(1399):927–33, Gangestad, S.W.;
Thornhill, R.
22. ^
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